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  • These sections will be broadly divided into implicit and

    2018-11-14

    These sections will be broadly divided into implicit and explicit processes, as the paradigms used to investigate these are quite different. However, it NVP-TNKS656 is noted that this distinction may be too simplistic and that the boundaries between implicit and explicit emotion regulation are likely porous. For instance, Gyurak et al. (2011) proposed that implicit emotion regulation may develop from the habitual use of specific explicit strategies. For example, explicitly reminding oneself that an angry coworker had a bad day may over time lead to the same regulation process occurring implicitly, without awareness.
    Implicit emotion regulation: neural bases and development in adolescence Implicit emotion regulation is defined as NVP-TNKS656 “any process that operates without the need for conscious supervision or explicit intentions, and aims at modifying the quality, intensity, or duration of an emotional response” (Koole and Rothermund, 2011, p. 1). While this definition does encompass the automatic and habitual use of strategies generally considered explicit as discussed above, this section will focus on regulatory processes that occur at the very earliest stages of emotion perception and processing, and which occur even when individuals are unaware of feeling a subjective emotional response. Emotional stimuli capture our attention (see Carretié, 2014 for a review), particularly via the activation of limbic regions such as the amygdala, which initiates an orienting response to salient stimuli (Gamer and Büchel, 2009). This can be adaptive as such stimuli are particularly likely to require action (e.g. to avoid a dangerous situation), although a hallmark of disorders such as depression and anxiety is a tendency for exaggerated capture by negative and disorder-relevant stimuli (Eysenck and Derakshan, 2011; Williams et al., 1996). However, emotional stimuli in the environment are also often irrelevant, and interfere with our current goals. Regulatory processes typically involving prefrontal circuitry are therefore brought online automatically in order to downregulate limbic responses, particularly when the presentation of emotional stimuli has the potential to interfere with a concurrent executive task. A recent meta-analysis of interactions between emotional stimuli and cognitive control in adults highlighted the involvement of ACC, inferior frontal junction, dlPFC and posterior medial OFC (Cromheeke and Mueller, 2014). It is therefore no surprise that executive functions are frequently relied upon during emotion regulation as one needs to remember goals, anticipate outcomes, and plan and execute responses (Zelazo and Cunningham, 2007). Accordingly, adult studies have shown that executive functions, such as greater verbal fluency, are associated with greater ability to down-and up-regulate emotions (Gyurak et al., 2009, 2012). A recent study investigating this in adolescence has found similar results. Using self-report questionnaires, Lantrip et al. (2015) found that better executive functions were associated with greater use of reappraisal, while reliance on suppression was associated with poorer executive functions such as poorer inhibitory control, problem solving and organisation skills. The findings suggest that the boundaries between executive functions and emotion regulation are quite porous, with executive functions subserving regulation of cognitive and well as emotional processes. Another task that measures inhibitory control and attentional bias is the Stroop test (Stroop, 1935) in which participants are required to name the colour of ink in which an item is printed, while attempting to ignore the item itself. Research has continuously found that it takes participants longer to name the colours when the base items are antagonistic colour names than when they are rows of meaningless stimuli (van Maanen et al., 2009). An adaptation of this is the emotional Stroop task where participants name the ink colour in which emotional and neutral words are written. Emotional words, particularly negative words most salient to an individual (e.g. cleanliness-related words in obsessive compulsive disorder), capture attention and lead to reaction time interference relative to neutral stimuli (see Williams et al., 1996 for a review). Like the go/no-go task, implicit emotion regulation here is defined as the ability to maintain cognitive control in the presence of emotional words.